Resources

Figures and Tables

CONTENTS

1.0 Visual Aids

2.0 Types

3.0 Purpose

4.0 Selection

5.0 Format

6.0 Style

7.0 Placement

8.0 Creation

8.1 Images

8.2 Theoretical Graphs

8.3 Mathematical Graphs

8.4 Tables

1.0 VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids are self-contained blocks of informational content that are part of a text document (e.g., a written report) or a presentation (e.g., live or recorded) where the informational content is conveyed mostly via non-text means.

FINDING, CREATING, AND USING VISUAL AIDS VIDEO (11:56)

2.0 TYPES

There are two basic kinds of visual aids, namely figures and tables (Figure 1). Figures are further subdivided into images, charts, maps, drawings, and graphs. Graphs can be further subdivided into theoretical graphs that convey concepts (e.g., a demand curve in a microeconomic principles course) and mathematical graphs that seek to convey specific data (e.g., a plot of population as measured by the U.S. Census over time).

Visual aids are self-contained, but they do not stand-alone. This is an important distinction. Visual aids are self-contained, meaning that within the boundaries of the visual aid there exists all of the information (e.g., the visual aid’s title, description, and source information) for the reader to make sense of the visual aid in the context of the larger text document (e.g., written report). Visual aids are not, however, meant to stand alone, meaning they still rely on the argument of the larger text document for important context and structure [1]. 

Visual aids are created by authors for specific useful purposes associated with particular text documents (e.g., a written report). Thus, it is almost never useful or appropriate to take a visual aid that another author created for another purpose and cut-and-paste it into your document.

3.0 PURPOSE

The purpose of all visual aids (i.e., all figures and tables) is to present complex ideas, relationships, patterns, and trends more simply and clearly than is possible using text alone. The guiding principle when selecting or creating visual aids is that they should be useful. Visual aids should be used only when they communicate ideas more effectively and efficiently than words alone. A well-crafted and thoughtfully chosen visual aid can also improve the author's credibility.

These are the three most important considerations when creating visual aids, namely (1) how useful is the visual aid, (2) how effectively does the visual aid communicate the author's message, and (3) how does the choice of visual aid affect the author's credibility.  

Visual aids are also designed to be extracted from the text and added to a presentation. Many readers actually read and browse only a report's introduction (e.g., the purpose and method statement paragraphs) and the visual aids (i.e., the figures and tables) when they want a quick overview of the analysis. For both of these reasons, your document's collection of visual aids should together do a fairly good job of revealing the main points of your analysis. Pick visual aids carefully to add as much value as possible (a picture tells a thousand words). 

4.0 SELECTION

These are the three most important considerations when selecting or creating visual aids, namely (1) how useful is the visual aid, (2) how effectively does the visual aid communicate the author's message, and (3) how does the choice affect the author's credibility.  

For example, it may require the proverbial 1,000 words to describe the typical attributes of producers in a market while a single, well-chosen photograph might communicate the same information much more simply. Suppose you are analyzing the current regional farm-level market for grass-fed cattle in Central Kentucky and you include the below figure in your text (Figure 2).

Figure 2 seems well-chosen for several reasons. The photograph shows an example of a live animal--the focus of the analysis--in the center. The animal appropriately is at or nearly at market weight and still eating grass, an important distinguishing element of grass-fed versus grain-fed cattle. That is, the major difference between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle occurs at the stage before slaughter [2]. The photograph also shows the animal in a grassy field near two houses and a barn. In this way, the photograph rightly implies that grass-fed cattle operations in Central Kentucky tend to favor smaller, niche-oriented farms. Finally, the image appropriately shows level to gently-rolling hills, a small farm pond, and a mix of three-board plank fencing and post and wire fencing. These are common characteristics of most grass-fed cattle operations in Central Kentucky. From this photograph, readers immediately get an appropriate sense of the basic production costs to produce grass-fed cattle such as a small barn, basic fencing, a rain-fed watering source, and a relatively low stocking rate.

The criterion of usefulness applies to all aspects of visual ads (e.g., their number, their size, and their placement). Typically, the more specialized knowledge that a target audience has, the less useful images are and in these cases fewer images is usually better. Conversely, audiences that have more general knowledge often benefit more from images.

For example, the usefulness of Figure 2 would vary depending on the topic and the intended audience. If the topic was how Central Kentucky farmers can switch from grain-fed operations to grass-fed operations, the image would not likely be useful. For an audience of grain-fed cattle operators in Central Kentucky who are considering grass-fed practices, Figure 2 probably does not add much value. That audience of cattle operators probably can easily picture a grass-fed operation. However, Figure 2 might be very useful if the target audience was beef consumers or bank loan officers who needed information about what grass-fed cattle are. 

There are several ways that well-chosen visual aids can be useful. First, as noted in the grass-fed cattle example, a well-chosen image can provide efficient clarification in ways that words alone sometimes cannot. For example, think about those instructions you get with a box of unassembled furniture. If the images in those instructions are well-chosen, they make assembling the piece of furniture easy. In some cases, the images alone are all that is needed. In fact, readers often skim technical works by reading the first few paragraphs, looking at all the visual aids (including their titles and descriptions), and reading the final few paragraphs. Your images and tables should—by themselves—tell most of your story.

Second, well-chosen visual aids can provide a useful and needed break for what might otherwise be a long, uninterrupted block of text. The usefulness of figures and tables in such cases depends a lot on how technical the content is and again who the intended audience is. Readers with specialized knowledge of the subject probably visual aids that serve this purpose less valuable than audiences for whom dense text on an unfamiliar subject can be particularly daunting. 

Third, well-chosen visual aids can strengthen readers' opinions about the ability of an author's credibility to conduct an analysis. This is true particularly when authors include figures and tables that they created or adapted themselves or that they solicited for a specific project (e.g., an appropriate and thoughtful photograph that the author took). When an author takes the photograph or creates the image rather than gathering it from a stock collection or other source, readers understand that the author actually visited the location where the photograph was taken or understands the topic in a more personal way. Readers in these cases tend to attribute greater credibility to authors that were actually "there" rather than those that just talk about being "there." 

In some technical documents, visual aids may seem useful but should not be included. Three instances are most notable. First, some publications may appear as a part of a series (e.g., journal articles). Publishers of documents in series often have specific guidelines about the number, type, quality, and subject matter of visual aids, especially images. Some print journals, for instance, are not published in color. Other journals actively discourage the use of images, mostly because they are rarely needed for their specialized readers and because reproduction of images is often relatively costly.  

Second, some kinds of technical documents and some types of visual aids do not mix well as a matter of conventional practice. A good example might be that most resumes traditionally do not include photographs of the person. The reason is that prospective employers need not be concerned about what a job applicant looks like. 

Third, visual aids that are copyrighted should not be included in some kinds of technical documents without permission from the owner of the work. Copyright restrictions are different than attribution requirements. Most technical documents require authors to provide clear attribution for work that is not the author's own. But, attribution alone is not sufficient legally if the work (e.g., the image) is copyrighted [3]. In general, the non-commercial (i.e., non-profit) use of images for educational or research purposes does not require permission from copyright holders as long as clear attribution is given. Such use usually qualifies as "fair use". The fair use of copyrighted material has a long and complex legal history, so authors should be careful. For instance, if you include a copyrighted image in a market analysis that you complete as part of a class (i.e., your work is not-for-profit and educational in nature), you would not likely be required to get permission from the owner of the image. However, if you created the same market analysis as part of a paid consulting assignment (i.e., your work is for-profit and proprietary in nature), you would then likely be required to get permission to use the copyrighted work. In any case, do not forget that the best visual aids are not copyrighted images, graphs, charts, or tables that were published elsewhere for another purpose. Instead, the best visual aids are those that you create, modify, or solicit yourself for a specific analytical purpose.

Let's look at several examples of visual aids. Don’t use images that are too small or too large or that have text that is not readable, either because the text is too small or because the resolution of the image is not high enough. Figure 3, for instance, is a low-resolution images that is not useful simply because the wording cannot be read clearly.

Keep in mind that visual aids used in printed reports (like your "Paper" assignment) require higher resolutions than ones used solely in digital reports. Authors should generally avoid images that are grainy, poorly focused, badly lit, or awkwardly centered. One rule-of-thumb for print images is to view them at 200% size on a computer screen. If the image looks sufficiently clear on the screen, it will likely have enough resolution to print clearly on paper.

Concerns about image quality usually arise when authors must balance various competing goals. For example, an author may be trying to choose between a clear, well-lit image, low-resolution image with slightly unrelated content from a stock photo site versus a poorly lit, high-resolution photo with relevant content taken by the author. There are not specific guidelines for making these kinds of trade-off decisions except that authors should choose images (or none at all) that are most useful to readers. 

Like most other considerations, the most appropriate size of the image should be determined by what is most useful to the reader. Smaller images are less distracting, but images that are too small cannot be viewed easily and clearly. In general, the image size should be no larger than is necessary to be useful. 

Images should be as useful and relevant as possible. Be careful about this. The content of the image is a critical consideration. For example, if you write about the market for gluten-free beer, it might be fine to show an image of a group of typical consumers appearing to enjoy the product (Figure 4).

But, Figure 4 seems problematic since it looks like these people are eating pizza which, almost always, has gluten in it. There is gluten-free pizza too, but why create confusion for the reader? Choose the best images possible. And remember, when you create your own images (e.g., take your own photos), that can help build your credibility as an analyst.

Consider another example. You want your images to convey as much useful information as possible in simplest way possible. The next example comes from an author who was analyzing a market that focused on whitetail deer in the central United States. In her text, she appropriately noted that hunting whitetail deer in this region was a different experience than hunting other game species (e.g., larger species like elk). However, her taxidermy deer head is not a good representation of a whitetail deer (Figure 5A). It's only half a deer, the deer is dead, and it's indoors hanging on a wall. The image has the advantage of being the author’s original photo (i.e., builds credibility).

Consider the advantages of substituting Figure 5B with an alternately designed figure (Figure 5B).  Figure 5B not only shows better how a whitetail deer looks, it also shows how whitetail deer look different than other similar game species. In this example, there are competing goals (the benefits of an original image taken by the author versus the information value of adapting existing images taken by others). As an author, you will have to weigh these competing goals.

The next section looks at how to adapt, compile, and modify existing images to create images that are more useful. The author, for example, adapted Figure 5B from several images that weren't previously combined in this way.  

5.0 FORMAT

Except when presented for artistic reasons (see below), visual aids typically have six components. All figures that you create for the assignments described in this text must include all six components. The only exception is that tables and theoretical graphs that you create only need the first five components.

1. An in-text reference

2. A reference number

3. A title

4. A description

5. A table or figure

6. Notes

In-Text Reference. The in-text reference signals to the reader when the reader should go find and look at a specific visual aid. There are several ways to reference figures and tables within the text. One way is merely to include the type of visual aid (e.g., a “Table” or “Figure”) and the visual aid’s reference number (e.g., “1” or “2”). Together the in-text reference would for instance be “Table 1” or “Figure 2”. When a reader sees “Table 1” or “Figure 2” in parentheses at the end of a sentence, the implied message to readers is, "It is now time for you to go find and look at the visual aid just mentioned in parenthesis at the end of this sentence."

Alternatively, you can write a separate sentence, such as, "See Figure 1." It is also acceptable and sometime preferred to reference the visual aid as the subject of a sentence. Sometimes you might highlight the in-text reference by making it bold. Here are some examples:

• This analysis examines you-pick blackberries from Robert’s Family Farm (Figure 1).

• Figure 1 shows an example of you-pick blackberries from Robert’s Family Farm.

Reference Number. The reference number is just the number of the figure or table. Reference numbers should start at number one (i.e., “1”) and increase by one (e.g., “2”, “3”, etc.). Series of tables and figures are numbered separately. The reference number, title, and description should go above the image.

In some cases, you might have two figures that you want the reader to compare (e.g., two market equilibrium graphs at two different time periods). In these special cases, you can refer to these with letters (e.g., “Figure 1A” and “Figure 1B” or “Figure 1a” and “Figure 1b”). In your figure or table, always make the type of visual aid and its reference number bold. Finally, always end this reference information with a period (e.g., “Figure 1.” or “Figure 1A.”).

A Title. All visual aids should have a short, descriptive title immediately following the reference number which should also appear in bold text to distinguish it from description that follows. Like all titles, you should capitalize the first, last, and all important words. However, unlike most titles, the title of your visual aid should end with a period. The reference number, title, and description should sit above the image and should be left justified and centered above left and right boundaries of the image or table. For example, in Figure 6A and 6B above, you can see that the figures' titles and descriptions are left justified (i.e., align with the left-hand side of the image) and that figures' title and descriptions are center-justified above the image (i.e., do not extend beyond the left- and right-hand sides of the image).  

A Description. All visual aids should have a short, informative description written using complete sentences. The purpose of the visual aid’s title and description is to help the reader understand the relevance of the visual aid without having to read anything in the main text. The description should be as concise as possible, but not usually longer than about three lines of text, though sometimes longer descriptions are necessary. The visual aid’s reference information, title, and description should all fit above the table or figure, forming a kind of header, and this header should be left justified. 

A Table or Figure. Obviously, the main feature of your visual aid will be the actual table, image, chart, graph, drawing or other kind of figure. For guidance about how to select or design an image, see the “Selection” section above. For guidance about how to create and/or modify one or more images, see the “Create Figures” section below. For guidance about how to create a table, see the “Create Tables” section below.

Notes. Sometimes there is information about a visual aid that can help readers understand better the meaning of a visual aid, but the information is not necessary to achieve that purpose, at least not necessary for most readers. Because visual aids are self-contained, you must attach this information to (e.g., place it at the bottom of) the visual aid. In general, any information that might typically go in a footnote is information that instead goes in the “note” that appears at the bottom of the visual aid.

The most common information that goes in a note is information about the source of the visual aid (e.g., who authored the image or gathered data for the table using what particular kind(s) of software). Many visual aids have attribution information (see above section on “Attribution, Citations, and Plagiarism”). If any portion of a visual aid is from or derives from work done by another person and if that work is not expressly excluded from attribution as part of a statement of originality, the author must clearly attribute (i.e., give credit for) that work to that other person. Typically the attribution information appears below the image or table in relatively small text. One goal is for attribution to be as unobtrusive as possible, so the text should be as small as possible while still be clearly readable, typically font size 8 to 9 for Times New Roman, Cambria, or Calibri.

While authors are not technically required to attribute to themselves visual aids that they completely authored (i.e., no work used from any other person), it is still a good practice to name yourself as the creator of images, drawings, maps, and other similarly complex visual material just to be clear. The reason is that, without any attribution, some readers may still wonder if you (as the author) forgot or overlooked the need to give attribution. In these cases, you can just put in the note, “Image by the author,” “Source: ________” [insert your name], or similar text. If you used software or an application to create the image, you must also give credit for that (e.g., Microsoft Word or a mapping app for layout).

Artistic Visual Aids. There are slightly different requirements when a visual aid is used for artistic purposes (e.g., an image used artistically on a title or cover page or as a starting cover slide in a presentation). In these cases, all that is required are the notes, including especially the attribution and citation information. When a visual aid is used for artistic purposes, place the notes and source information in small font size in an unobtrusive location. Typically, the best location is beneath the visual aid. If the visual aid (e.g., image) is faded for artistic reasons, the note(s) can also be faded to match, if desired. The note(s) and source information can also be placed on the next page (e.g., where a copyright statement might appear); this is more typical for longer written documents (e.g., 50 pages or more).  

6.0 STYLE

When there is more than one visual aid in a document, all of the figures and/or tables should all have a common look. They should look like they go together. All the visual aids should be about the same size, have a similar style, and be formatted similarly. Placement and layout in the text should also be the same. Do not, for example, wrap text around some images and not others (see Placement below). Readers naturally look for differences, and you want to avoid creating visual aids that are different for no reason.

7.0 PLACEMENT

In general, visual aids should be placed as close as possible to but never before the in-text reference. 

Tables and figures are typically distributed throughout the text. Occasionally, some authors place visual aids in a separate appendix at the end of a document. This is not ideal since it separates the visual aid from the referring text (i.e., readers have to move back and forth between the main text and the appendix). Thus, for every assignment in this text, you must distribute all of the visual aids throughout the text.

Most word processing software programs allow text to be "wrapped" around the square boundaries of a figure or table. This option may require you to create a "text box" and insert the figure into the text box. Alternatively, you may also insert the figure in the document without wrapping text and horizontally center the visual aid with some text (i.e., reference, title, and description) above and other text (i.e., notes) below. 

In any case, authors should avoid creating a lot of awkward white space within the text. No visual aid should ever be divided onto two printed pages. If this happens, it is best to move the offending visual aid to avoid the distracting white space. 

Never have a visual aid that does is not referenced somewhere in the text (i.e., that does not have an in-text reference). The in-text reference to the visual aid's reference number should always appear in the text before the visual aid appears. And, of course, you should not have a textual reference to a figure or table that does not appear in the text.

8.0 CREATION

8.1 Images

The guiding principle when selecting an image for a text is that the image should be useful. Specifically, images should be selected and used only when they communicate ideas more effectively and efficiently than words alone. Sometimes you may improve the usefulness of your visual aid by adapting one or more images rather than using an entire image that was likely intended for a different purpose.

Figure 5B (above) is an example of a single image created from several other images. To create Figure 5B, the author first found images online using Google Images and noted the source. Next, the author used a screen shot tool (SnagIt) to capture the images. Using Microsoft Word, the author then placed each of the five images in “Text Boxes” and grouped them together (select all, right click, “Group”). The author then placed the text in two separate boxes (top and bottom) and grouped those two additional text boxes together with the five images. Finally, the author removed the lines around each box (right click, “Format Object”, “Line Style”, “none”) and added my own box and line around the images to separate them from the text (“Insert”, “Shapes”). 

You can also add other clarifying details in Word using various "Shapes" and/or text boxes. For example, a former student created Figure 6 to show the boundaries of a market. The student located two images on the internet, one showing where Illinois is compared to the United States and another image showing the political boundaries of Illinois. Using Microsoft Word, the student pasted these images in different text boxes and sized the text boxes to her preference. The student used "Shapes" to add the circle and the radius line. She edited the radius line (select, right click, "Format Shape") to make it red. She used another text box for the numerals "100". She use the "Group" feature in Word (select all, right click, "Group") to combine all of these individual text boxes and shape into one single image. The student created this grouped image in a separate Word document (and saved if for later, if needed) and then used a screen shot tool (e.g., SnagIt) to create a single image file (e.g., .jpg) to insert into her text document (e.g., written report) using a single text box. Finally, she used two more text boxes for the text at the top and bottom of her image, and “grouped” the three text boxes, making it easy to "wrap" her text around the visual aid (select, right click, "Wrap Text") if desired.

In the “Note” section of the above figure, you see the important language that “the author adapted” two images. The word “adapted” indicates that an original image is the work of some other person but that additional work was done by the author to adapt the original image and add additional value. By providing citation details to the original source material (e.g., images), the author of the above image gives readers a clear way to see what work came others and what work can be attributed to the author.  

8.2 Theoretical Graphs

There are two general kinds of graphs: theoretical graphs and mathematical graphs. The design process for each kind of graph is different.

This section describes how to create, format, and modify basic line graphs that are typically used to describe general theoretical concepts and ideas (e.g., generic supply, demand, and market equilibrium). Basic line graphs reflect theoretical ideas rather than actual empirical data. If you want to create graphs that reflect actual data, you will likely want to use spreadsheet software (e.g., Microsoft Excel) rather than word processing software (e.g., Microsoft Word). All of the graphs needed for a basic market analysis like the one described in this text can be created using Microsoft Word or similar word processing software.   

Drawing and Moving Lines. To draw a line in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

1. Create a blank space in the document where you want to position your graph (not recommended) or open a separate document (recommended).

2. Left click on "Insert" and select "Shapes".

3. Left click on the type of line that you want, usually a simple, straight line is best. When you left click on the icon for the type of line that you want, you will see a bold cross (i.e., cross hairs) appear on the document.

4. Using the mouse, left click where you want the line to start and hold the mouse button, dragging the mouse to where you want the line to end. If you simultaneously hold down the shift key at the same time, it will create a straight line. When the line is about where you want it, release the left mouse button (and shift key).

5. To move or edit your line, left click on the line. When you do, the selected line will show with small circles at each end. These circles are "handles" for moving and/or extending the line. Left click and hold on one of the circles to move the line from that point; release the mouse button to relocate the line. To move the entire line, left click and hold on the middle section of the line and move; release the mouse button to relocate the line.

6. You may also move a line by left clicking on it to show the two circles at each end and then using the arrow keys. The arrow keys will only move the line left, right, up, and down. The arrow keys are best for very small movements of the line.

7. To make more precise line movements, left click on the line and release the mouse button. Then, use the document zoom buttons in the lower right corner to zoom in on that line. 

Neatness is important in high quality technical writing. Neatness elevates your credibility as an author. Be careful to make your lines straight (i.e., crisp and clear). Be careful to make the intersection of your lines precise. Be mindful of the line spacing. Think carefully about how to create graphs that are as simple and clear as possible. If there are differences between similar graphs in the same document, be aware that those differences will attract reader attention. Do not attract reader attention in this way unless it is for a particular and useful reason. 

Formatting Lines. To format a line in Microsoft Word, follow these steps: 

1. Left click on the line and release the mouse button to select the line.

2. Hover over the selected line with the mouse until you see the cross hairs and then right click the mouse button.

3. Choose the "Format Shape" option.

4. To change the line color, left click on the "Line Color" option. Left click on the drop down arrow next to the color fill button and left click to choose a new color. In general, avoid colors other than black unless you have a specific useful purpose for doing so.

5. To increase the thickness of a line or to add arrows, left click on the "Line Style" option. To make a thicker line, left click on arrows to increase or decrease the "Width". Often a good line thickness for most lines is 1 point to 1.5 points. To add arrows or to change the arrow style, left click on the drop down arrow and select the desired options. 

Be careful to make the format of your lines consistent and clear. If you have different line formats (e.g., thicker and thinner lines or black and red lines), be sure that these format choices are intentional and serve a useful purpose. 

Creating and Formatting Text Boxes. Text boxes are used to create labels for individual lines and also to create the label and reference information for the newly created figure. To create a text box in Microsoft Word, follow these steps: 

1. Left click on the "Insert" tab, then the "Text Box" option, and then "Draw Text Box". Hover the mouse over the document and you should see the bold cross hairs.

2. Place the bold cross hairs at the upper left corner of the location where you want to position a new text box. Left click and hold the mouse button as you drag the mouse to form the text box of the size you desire. Release the left mouse button to finish creating a text box.

3. Left click inside the text box to enter text. You can use all of the "Font" and "Paragraph" options to format the text inside a text box, including the subscript and superscript options. Remember that each figure should have a label or title (e.g., "Figure 1") and a short description of the image, chart, or graph. Create separate text boxes for the label and description of each graph. Typically, the label and description appear above the figure. Create a separate text box with any reference information for the figure; place it typically below the figure. Typically, the reference information is in a smaller font size.

4. You can resize the text box by left clicking on any of the small white circles at the corners and sides of the text box. If you do not see the white circles, left click on the edges of the text box. You can rotate the text box left clicking and holding the small green circle as you move the mouse left or right.

5. To format the text box, click on the edges of the text box and notice the arrow cross hair icon. Without moving the mouse, right click and select "Format Shape" with a left click of the mouse.

6. Choose "Fill" and then left click inside the "No fill" radio button to make the background of the text box transparent. This is useful so that your text box does not obscure the other objects around it.

7. Choose "Line Color" and then left click inside the "No line" radio button to remove the black line surrounding the text box. This is useful since most graphs will look better without the black perimeters of these boxes showing.

8. To move a text box, follow the same process as moving a line. Remember, you can left click on a line or text box and move it more precisely using the arrow keys. Zooming in on a line allows for more precise movements of the line or text box as well. 

Grouping Lines and Text Boxes. Grouping lines and text boxes is a way to move two or more of these objects together without changing their relative locations. If you decide to create your graphs in your primary document (not recommended), grouping objects is the best way to preserve them as you work on the rest of the text in your document. If you decide to create your graphs in a separate document (recommended), you may not need to group your text boxes. To group lines in Microsoft Word, follow these steps: 

1. Hold down the "Shift" key and left click and release on each line or text box that you wish to group together. When clicking on each line or text box, you must mouse over the chosen line and left click when the cross hair icon appears.

2. After selecting the objects you wish to group together, release the "Shift" key and carefully mouse over one of the lines or text boxes until the arrow cross hair icon appears. Without moving the mouse, carefully right click and from the menu select the "Group" option using a left click of the mouse. Choose "Group" to fix the objects together and choose "Ungroup" to make each one move independently again.

3. After grouping objects together, the lines and text boxes move as a single unit and function as an image. 

Positioning Figures and Text Wrapping. After you group a set of lines and text boxes or after you screen capture your image, you can use the text wrapping and positioning options to position your figure neatly within the body of your text. To do this using Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

1. Left click on a line or other object in the group and notice the arrow cross hairs. Without moving the mouse, right click on "More Layout Options...".

2. Left click on the "Position" tab. Select the option to "Move object with text" to allow the grouped objects (i.e., the figure) to move with the text and maintain its relative location within the text. The other options are beyond the scope of this chapter.

3. Left click on the "Text Wrapping" tab. Select the option "Square" to allow the text to flow around the grouped objects of the figure. Select "Top and bottom" if you want the figure to appear without any text to the left or right of the figure.

4. Select "Both Sides" if you want the text to wrap on both sides of the figure. The other options should be self explanatory. Be aware that some options may be grayed out if they are incompatible (e.g., you cannot use "Top and bottom" and have the text be on "Both sides").

5. You can change the "Distance from text" options to provide a larger or smaller buffer around your text (e.g., when using the "Square" text wrapping option).

8.3 Mathematical Graphs

The other kind of graph is a mathematical graph that utilizes empirical data to show how one variable changes as a second variable changes. The software program Microsoft Excel is well-suited to create these kinds of graphs. There are many videos, tutorials, and explanations online to show you how to create the graph in Excel. Here are the basic steps:

1. Enter your data into two columns in Excel.

2. Add labels to each column.

3. Highlight the cells in both columns including the heading cells.

4. Click on “Insert” and choose the “scatter plot” option.

5. Choose among the choices offered based you your preference. This will open a text box containing a graph.

After creating your graph in Excel, you can edit the appearance of the graph to suit your preferences. You can also add a “trendline” to the graph, if desired and relevant to your analysis. To add a trendline, hover your mouse pointer over the line and right click your mouse to reveal the menu. Select “Add Trendline.”

CREATE MATHEMATICAL GRAPHS WITH TRENDLINES VIDEO (9:33)

After creating the graph in Excel, use a screenshot application (e.g., SnagIt or the “Print Screen” button and “Paint” program) to capture an image file (e.g., .jpg) of the graph. This is done most attractively if you screen shoot the graph in “Print Preview”. After you capture the image file of the graph, insert the graph into a textbox in your text document. Be sure to add text boxes above and below the image with the figure reference, title, and description (above) and the notes (below).

For additional help creating line graphs in Microsoft Excel, search online for other guides. An official guide to creating line graphs is available for Microsoft Excel here. 

 8.4 Tables

Tables can easily be created in Microsoft Word. Select “Insert” and “Table”. Select table size (rows and columns). Use the “Table Tools” (in yellow) at the top, including the “Design” tab and “Layout” tab. Drag lines to changes table cells. Click on the table and on the yellow “Design” tab and then on the drop down “Borders” menu to show or hide lines in a table.

DESIGNING TABLES VIDEO (3:34)

Be aware that tables in technical communication have some conventional format requirements. Tables are generally composed of horizontal lines only (i.e., no vertical lines). Use your style guide (e.g., APA or MLA) for additional guidance on designing tables. When a table is required as part of an assignment in this text, specific instructions and examples are provided.

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[1] The term info-graphic is sometimes used to describe a stand-alone document that relies mostly or exclusively on non-text information (e.g., an image, map, drawing, or collection of the same) to convey the entirety of a message or argument.

[2] Most immature cattle are started on grass but then traditional, grain-fed cattle move to mid-western feed lots where they are "finished" on grain. Grass-fed cattle, by comparison, complete this final finishing stage before slaughter on grass.

[3] As a matter of law, all images are by default copyright protected unless or until the creator explicitly states otherwise.